Italian Journal of Health Education, Sports and Inclusive Didactics
Nonlinear Pedagogy in Physical Education Teaching: Promoting Executive Functions Development
Abstract
Educational Neuroscience highlights embodied learning as a key driver of children’s cognitive and psychophysical development, reinforcing the role of Physical Education (PE) in promoting health and well-being throughout developmental age. Grounded in ecological-dynamical theory, Nonlinear Pedagogy (NLP) promotes adaptive processes through task and environmental constraints, supporting active lifestyles and flexible, situation-specific behaviours in childhood. This study examined the effects of an NLP-based PE intervention on attention and visual processing speed in primary school children (N = 165; mean age = 7.21 ± 0.93), compared to traditional instruction over 16 weeks. Results, collected through Witty SEM technology, allowed an objective assessment of cognitive performance, suggesting that NLP-oriented environments can enhance attention and decision-making efficiency, supporting Physical Education contexts that promote cognitive development in primary school age children.
Keywords
References
Ansari, D., De Smedt, B., & Grabner, R. H. (2012). Neuroeducation – A Critical Overview of An Emerging Field. Neuroethics, 5(2), 105–117. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12152-011-9119-3
Araújo, D., Hristovski, R., Seifert, L., Carvalho, J., & Davids, K. (2019). Ecological cognition: Expert decision-making behaviour in sport. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 12(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2017.1349826
Benjamini, Y., & Hochberg, Y. (2000). On the adaptive control of the false discovery rate in multiple testing with independent statistics. Journal of educational and Behavioral Statistics, 25(1), 60–83.
Best, J. R., & Miller, P. H. (2010). A developmental perspective on executive function. Child development, 81(6), 1641–1660.
Bortoli, L., & Robazza, C. (2016). L’apprendimento delle abilità motorie. Due approcci tra confronto e integrazione. SDS-Rivista di cultura sportiva, 109(1), 23–34.
BrainHQ | Microgate. (s.d.). Recuperato 19 giugno 2025, da https://training.microgate.it/en/products/brainhq
Button, C., Seifert, L., Chow, J. Y., Araújo, D., & Davids, K. (2021). Dynamics of skill acquisition: An ecological dynamics approach. Human Kinetics Publishers. https://books.google.com/books?hl=it&lr=&id=2TPODwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP2&dq=ecological+dynamics+approach+skill+acquisition&ots=XaN2phSpq_&sig=YBjqiygqFYka1getuUjhVC54BNg
Cabral, M., Pournara, I., Pontifex, M. B., Venetsanou, F., Pesce, C., & Vazou, S. (2025). A meta-analysis of physical activity interventions targeting executive functions in children: Focus on cognitive and/or metabolic demands? International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 1–23.
Chow, J. Y. (2013). Nonlinear Learning Underpinning Pedagogy: Evidence, Challenges, and Implications. Quest, 65(4), 469–484. https://doi.org/10.1080/00336297.2013.807746
Chow, J. Y., & Atencio, M. (2014). Complex and nonlinear pedagogy and the implications for physical education. Sport, Education and Society, 19(8), 1034–1054. https://doi.org/10.1080/13573322.2012.728528
Chow, J. Y., Davids, K., Button, C., & Renshaw, I. (2021). Nonlinear pedagogy in skill acquisition: An introduction. Routledge. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781003247456/nonlinear-pedagogy-skill-acquisition-jia-yi-chow-keith-davids-chris-button-ian-renshaw
Chow, J. Y., Davids, K., Button, C., Shuttleworth, R., Renshaw, I., & Araújo, D. (2007). The Role of Nonlinear Pedagogy in Physical Education. Review of Educational Research, 77(3), 251–278. https://doi.org/10.3102/003465430305615
Chow, J. Y., Davids, K., Hristovski, R., Araújo, D., & Passos, P. (2011). Nonlinear pedagogy: Learning design for self-organizing neurobiological systems. New Ideas in Psychology, 29(2), 189–200.
Chow, J. Y., Teo-Koh, S. M., Tan, C. W. K., Button, C., Tan, B. S.-J., Kapur, M., Meerhoff, R., & Choo, C. Z. Y. (2020). Nonlinear pedagogy and its relevance for the new PE curriculum. Office of Education Research, National Institute of Education, Singapore.
Cohen, J. (2013). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. routledge.
Cooke, D. M., Harrison, C. B., Millar, S.-K., & Walters, S. (2022). The Impact of a Nonlinear Pedagogical Approach to Primary School Physical Education Upon Children’s Movement Skill Competence. https://journals.humankinetics.com/view/journals/jtpe/42/2/article-p323.xml
Coppola, S., D’Anna, C., Minghelli, V., & Vastola, R. (2024). Ecological dynamics approach in physical education to promote cognitive skills development: A review. Journal of Human Sport and Exercise, 19(3), 792–802.
Correia, V., Carvalho, J., Araújo, D., Pereira, E., & Davids, K. (2019). Principles of nonlinear pedagogy in sport practice. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 24(2), 117–132. https://doi.org/10.1080/17408989.2018.1552673
D’Anna, C., Basadonne, I., Aquino, G., Minghelli, V., & Limone, P. (2025). Relationships Between Motor Skills and Academic Achievement: An Exploratory Study on Italian Primary School Children. Education Sciences, 15(2), 124.
D’Anna, C., Carlevaro, F., Magno, F., Vagnetti, R., Limone, P., & Magistro, D. (2025). Sex differences in gross motor competence in italian children aged 3–11 years: A large-scale cross-sectional study. Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology, 10(1), 61.
D’Anna, D., D’Anna, C., Carlevaro, F., Magno, F., & Magistro, D. (2023). Test per la valutazione dello sviluppo grosso-motorio TGMD3 (Ulrich, 2019). Validazione italiana.
Davids, K., Araújo, D., Vilar, L., Renshaw, I., & Pinder, R. (2013). An ecological dynamics approach to skill acquisition: Implications for development of talent in sport. Talent Development and Excellence, 5(1), 21–34.
Davids, K., Glazier, P., Araujo, D., & Bartlett, R. (2003). Movement systems as dynamical systems: The functional role of variability and its implications for sports medicine. Sports medicine, 33(4), 245–260.
Diamond, A. (2013). Executive Functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135–168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750
Diamond, A. (2015). Effects of physical exercise on executive functions: Going beyond simply moving to moving with thought. Annals of sports medicine and research, 2(1), 1011.
Diamond, A. (2020). Executive functions. In Handbook of clinical neurology (Vol. 173, pp. 225–240). Elsevier.
Diamond, A., & Lee, K. (2011). Interventions Shown to Aid Executive Function Development in Children 4 to 12 Years Old. Science, 333(6045), 959–964. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1204529
Executive functions training | Microgate. (s.d.). Recuperato 19 giugno 2025, da https://training.microgate.it/en/solutions/executive-functions-training
Forte, P., Pugliese, E., Aquino, G., Matrisciano, C., Carlevaro, F., Magno, F., Magistro, D., & D’Anna, C. (2025). Enhancing Visuospatial Working Memory and Motor Skills Through School-Based Coordination Training. Sports, 13(11), 396.
Hopkins, W., Marshall, S., Batterham, A., & Hanin, J. (2009). Progressive statistics for studies in sports medicine and exercise science. Medicine+ Science in Sports+ Exercise, 41(1), 3.
Howard-Jones, P. A. (2014). Neuroscience and education: Myths and messages. Nature reviews neuroscience, 15(12), 817–824.
Immordino‐Yang, M. H., & Damasio, A. (2007). We feel, therefore we learn: The relevance of affective and social neuroscience to education. Mind, brain, and education, 1(1), 3–10.
Kaloka, P. T., Nopembri, S., Yudanto, Y., & Elumalai, G. (2024). Improvement of Executive Function Through Cognitively Challenging Physical Activity with Nonlinear Pedagogy In Elementary Schools. Retos, 51, 673–682.
Kolb, B., & Gibb, R. (2011). Brain plasticity and behaviour in the developing brain. Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 20(4), 265.
Komar, J., Chow, J. Y., Kawabata, M., & Choo, C. Z. Y. (2022). Information and Communication Technology as an enabler for implementing Nonlinear Pedagogy in Physical Education: Effects on students’ exploration and motivation. Asian Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 2(1), 44–49.
Lovecchio, N., & Pittaluga, E. (2024). Educational content to improve cognitive function: Relationship between physical education and attention Contenuti didattici finalizzati al miglioramento delle funzioni cognitive: Tra educazione fisica e attenzione. Journal Homepage, 17(33), 285–293.
Magistro, D., Piumatti, G., Carlevaro, F., Sherar, L. B., Esliger, D. W., Bardaglio, G., Magno, F., Zecca, M., & Musella, G. (2020). Psychometric proprieties of the Test of Gross Motor Development–Third Edition in a large sample of Italian children. Journal of science and medicine in sport, 23(9), 860–865.
Matrisciano, C., Minino, R., Mariani, A. M., & D’Anna, C. (2025). The Effect of Physical Activity on Executive Functions in the Elderly Population: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials. Brain Sciences, 15(7), 703.
MIUR. (2016, settembre 15). Nota Miur n. 2915/2016 – Prime indicazioni per la progettazione delle attività di formazione destinate al personale scolastico. Roma: MIUR.
MIUR, 2012. (2012, novembre 16). Indicazioni nazionali per il curricolo della scuola dell’infanzia e del primo ciclo d’istruzione. Annali della Pubblica Istruzione (numero speciale)Roma: Le Monnier.
Monacis, D., Colella, D., & Limone, P. (2022). Non-linear didactic technology-based intervention to enhance basic motor competencies with MOBAK-5: A pilot study in primary school. Physical Activity Review, 10(1).
NaeimAbadi, Z., & Bagheri, S. (2024). The Effect of Non-linear Pedagogy of Hurdle on Physical Literacy of Qom City Female Students. Journal of Motor Control and Learning, 6(4). http://brieflands.com/articles/jmcl-157154.pdf
Newell, K. M. (1986). Constraints on the development of coordination. Motor development on children: Aspects of coordination and control, 341.
Pesce, C., & Ben-Soussan, T. D. (2016). “Cogito ergo sum” or “ambulo ergo sum”? New perspectives in developmental exercise and cognition research.
Pugliese, E., Forte, P., & D’Anna, C. (2023). Cognitive vs ecological dynamic approach: A synthetical framework to guide effective educational choices. Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 23(9), 2480–2485.
Pugliese, E., Forte, P., Matrisciano, C., Carlevaro, F., D’Anna, C., & Magistro, D. (2025). The Influence of Nonlinear Pedagogy Physical Education Intervention on Cognitive Abilities in Primary School Children: A Preliminary Study. Brain Sciences, 15(12), 1283.
Renshaw, I., Davids, K., Newcombe, D., & Roberts, W. (2019). The constraints-led approach: Principles for sports coaching and practice design. Routledge. https://api.taylorfrancis.com/content/books/mono/download?identifierName=doi&identifierValue=10.4324/9781315102351&type=googlepdf
Rudd, J. R., O’Callaghan, L., & Williams, J. (2019). Physical Education Pedagogies Built upon Theories of Movement Learning: How Can Environmental Constraints Be Manipulated to Improve Children’s Executive Function and Self-Regulation Skills? International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(9), 1630. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16091630
Sannicandro, I., & Colella, D. (2025). Dall’approccio ecologico dinamico alla flessibilità degli apprendimenti nella formazione motoria e sportiva del giovane atleta. Formazione & insegnamento, 21(2), 1–xx.
Seifert, L., Vauclin, P., Gotardi, G., Miller-Dicks, M., van der Kamp, J., & Wheat, J. (2025). Perceptual-motor skills in cycling: Towards an affordance-based control approach. Transport Reviews, 1–16.
Song, W., Feng, L., Wang, J., Ma, F., Chen, J., Qu, S., & Luo, D. (2022). Play Smart, Be Smart? Effect of Cognitively Engaging Physical Activity Interventions on Executive Function among Children 4~12 Years Old: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Brain Sciences, 12(6), 762. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12060762
Srinivas, N. S., Vimalan, V., Padmanabhan, P., & Gulyás, B. (2021). An overview on cognitive function enhancement through physical exercises. Brain Sciences, 11(10), 1289.
Tomporowski, P. D., Davis, C. L., Miller, P. H., & Naglieri, J. A. (2008). Exercise and children’s intelligence, cognition, and academic achievement. Educational psychology review, 20, 111–131.
Van der Fels, I. M., Te Wierike, S. C., Hartman, E., Elferink-Gemser, M. T., Smith, J., & Visscher, C. (2015). The relationship between motor skills and cognitive skills in 4–16 year old typically developing children: A systematic review. Journal of science and medicine in sport, 18(6), 697–703.
Walters, G. W. M., Cooper, S., Carlevaro, F., Magno, F., Boat, R., Vagnetti, R., D’Anna, C., Musella, G., & Magistro, D. (2025). Normative percentile values for the TGMD-3 for Italian children aged 3–11 + years. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 28(5), 398–407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2024.12.013
Weston, A. T., Petosa, R., & Pate, R. R. (1997). Validation of an instrument for measurement of physical activity in youth. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 29, 138–143.
Yang, Q., Song, M., Chen, X., Li, M., & Wang, X. (2025). The influence of linear and nonlinear pedagogy on motor skill performance: The moderating role of adaptability. Frontiers in Psychology, 16. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1540821
Zhou, Y., & Tolmie, A. (2024). Associations between Gross and Fine Motor Skills, Physical Activity, Executive Function, and Academic Achievement: Longitudinal Findings from the UK Millennium Cohort Study. Brain Sciences, 14(2), 121. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14020121
DOI: https://doi.org/10.32043/gsd.v10i4.1839
Refbacks
- There are currently no refbacks.
Copyright (c) 2026 ITALIAN JOURNAL OF HEALTH EDUCATION, SPORT AND INCLUSIVE DIDACTICS
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Italian Journal of Health Education, Sports and Inclusive Didactics
Publisher: Cares srl – REN Press (since 2026). Previously published by Gaia srl – Edizioni Universitarie Romane (2017–2025).
ISSN: 2532-3296 E-ISSN: 3103-5744